Addressing the Needs of Children with Learning Disabilities

Summary: At its 16th session (22 September -
10 October 1997) the Committee on
the Rights of the Child devoted a Day
of General Discussion (6 October
1997) to the theme "The Rights of
Children with Disabilities". This is the
submission made by the
International School Psychology
Association to the committee

Addressing the Needs of Children with Learning Disabilities International School Psychology Association Thomas Oakland ISPA Past-President and University of Florida and Beeman Phillips ISPA Research Committee Chair and The University of Texas as Austin This paper was prepared for submission to the October 6, 1997 meeting of the Committee on the Rights of the Child in response to its request for position papers that address issues important to children with disabilities. Significance The provision of educational and psychological services for children exhibiting special needs has had an uneven development during the 20th century. The level of professional preparation and methods to identify and intervene have shown remarkable development in some countries yet remain nonexistent or meager in others. The majority of children exhibiting special needs are not provided suitable educational and psychological services. This lack is clearly seen in the provision of services to children exhibiting learning disabilities. While countries typically offer some special services to children with mental retardation or visual or auditory impairments, few if any special services are available to those with learning disabilities. Learning disabilities constitute the largest number of children with handicapping conditions. Despite an estimated 150 million children with learning disabilities, few professionals outside of western Europe and North America are properly prepared to work with them, and methods to identify and intervene are lacking. Leadership by the Committee on the Rights of the Child and other organizations is needed to help address this need. The proposed project serves both humanitarian goals and social needs. Humanitarian goals are served by enabling children to develop to their full potential and not be burdened by a lack of basic academic skills and abilities. Social needs are met by more fully developing the potential of some of the country's most bright and able students, thus enabling them to assume important positions at all levels within the public and private sectors on a country's economy. The proposed project is consistent with the primary goals of the Committee on the Rights of the Child as enumerated in Articles 2, 12, 13, 23, 28, and 29. The promotion of academic skills and abilities among children with learning disabilities enables them to acquire most if not all of their education in regular settings as well as to develop important self-help, social, emotional, and economic skills necessary for a full and rewarding life. They will be able to vote, assume positions of leadership in their communities, and in other ways fully participate in the life of their communities. In addition, they will be able to advocate for others with learning disabilities and other handicapping conditions. Issues The number of children with learning disabilities exceeds those with other handicapping conditions. They constitute the largest number of undeserved or unserved group. Learning disabilities are life-long and thus negatively impact academic social, and emotional development, limit vocational development and thus a countryÕs prosperity, and a person's civic involvement. Those with learning disabilities, if identified early and receive suitable interventions, can achieve normally and fulfill important adult responsibilities. Improved professional preparation of teachers for the learning disabled, identification of learning disabilities, and intervention methods for them require a solid scientific foundation. The ability of countries to acquire this needed foundation varies greatly. Assistance is needed most in Central and South America, Africa, the Indian subcontinent, and some Asian countries. These and other issues are described more fully below. Strategies International and national research councils are needed to engage professionals with expertise in applied work with the learning disabled, researchers, policy planners, and others to mount a multi-year effort leading to a solid research base on which to develop methods to prepare teachers and to identify and intervene with children with learning disabilities. These strategies are described more fully below. Offer of Assistance As noted more fully below, the International School Psychology Association is prepared to offer its assistance and support to these efforts. Supporting Information The International School Psychology Association (ISPA) and the more than 100,000 school psychologists are dedicated to promoting the use of sound psychological principles within the context of education through efforts that advance the welfare of children and youth who exhibit academic, mental, physical, and emotional disabilities. The work of school psychologists and special educators often is closely intertwined. History of School Psychology and Special Education The histories of school psychology and special education can be traced to common origins. During the industrial revolution in western Europe and North America, significant educational and social problems accompanied changes from life-styles characterized by more personalized, largely rural, and family centered environments dependent upon agricultural and small family business to lifestyles in more depersonalized urban and industrial locations in which heritage and family ties were accorded less importance. Prior to the industrial revolution, some families with children exhibiting special needs provided for them as best they could. Others hid their children from the public, and still others tortured them, given their belief the children were possessed or bedeviled. There are few records of them attending public schools. Some with the most sever disabilities were incarcerated. During the industrial revolution, as families moved to more concentrated areas of population with complex social problems and increased cognitive demands, a family's ability to care for its children with special needs often diminished. Moreover, problems exhibited by these children spilled into communities and touched the lives of many others. In their quest to seek solutions to children's educational and social problems, public and private agencies together with courts and schools sought assistance from professionals prepared in the emerging professions of psychology and education. This movement coincided with the establishment of free public schools in many countries. The growth of professions typically exhibits centrifugal movements, resulting in its refinement and the creation of specialty areas. For example, as general medicine grew in stature and the number of practitioners, from it developed various specialty areas (e.g., pediatrics, cardiology, radiology). This pattern, in which specialty areas are spun off and created, also characterizes psychology and education. The emerging professions of psychology and education had sufficiently matured by the early 1900s to warrant the creation of school psychology as a specialty of psychology and of special education as a specialty of education. Although their primary professional affiliations differed, both were committed to advancing the welfare of children and youth who exhibit academic, mental, physical, and emotional disabilities. They formed partnership in many countries, giving rise to improved methods to prevent, identify, and intervene. Improvements in special education services to children and youth can be traced to various factors. Three have been critical: improved preparation of professionals, methods of identification, and methods of intervention. Improvements in these three areas are directly attributable to efforts that helped establish a solid scientific and scholarly basis for practice. The Need To Establish The Scientific Basis For Practice In Many Countries Although special education services generally are well established within western Europe and North America, they are just emerging in most countries. Special education services are unavailable in many countries, including regions in which the United Nations is providing educational services to refugee children. In these undeserved and unserved locations, some families continue to provide for their handicapped children as best they can while others still hide them from the public or torture them. Dedicated though small numbers of professionals in school psychology and special education in these countries often strive to provide needed services yet lack proper preparation as well as methods of identification and intervention that accompany a solid scientific and scholarly basis for practice. Assistance is needed to provide the scientific and scholarly infrastructure that would elevate professional preparation and education services to higher levels. Models that draw together the best resources of practitioners in school psychology and special education together with those of the scientific community are needed. Scientist-Practitioner Model The dedication of the medical profession to a scientist-practitioner model, in which practices are based on sound evidence, has served as a useful model to other professions, including education and psychology. This model provides for a reciprocal relationship between science and practice. Each contributes to the other. Science addresses issues important to practice, and practice uses the results from science. In addition, scientists and practitioners form partnerships in which each contributes both their common and unique areas of expertise to the endeavor of discovery and application. The employment of this model or variations of it have been instrumental in improving the preparation of professionals in school psychology and special education and in promoting suitable methods of identification and intervention they use with children exhibiting handicapping conditions. Contributors To Science Our understanding of children with learning disabilities is enhanced by contributions from researchers whose skills help shape reliable and verifiable methods to collect, analyze, and interpret information as well as from practitioners who work with children with learning disabilities over an extended period as well as. Their respective roles are discussed briefly below. Scholars Contributions To Science Scholars generally embrace traditional goals of science, including a desire to describe, explain, anticipate, and intervene. They also acquire academic knowledge and technical skills during their initial professional preparation. As they become seasoned practitioners, their work also ranges far beyond textbook methods for forming and carrying out studies and leads to a richer and more intuitive understanding of their work. Many scientific methods originally were developed for use in agriculture as well as the physical and biological sciences. Scientists working in these areas enjoy considerable control over conditions that can influence scientific outcomes. In contrast, persons conducting research on children, in education, and within different cultural and social settings do not enjoy the same degree of control. Research conducted in these areas requires the use of methodologies that reflect and better illuminate the richness and complexities of schools and schooling within different social and cultural settings. Research methodologies must be less rigid, and standards for judging acceptable practices must be more pragmatic. Practitioners Contributions To Science Practitioners typically are dedicated to accurately describing students and intervening in ways that promote their personal and civic development. They acquire basic academic knowledge and technical skills during their initial professional preparation. These qualities are needed for their entry into their newfound work with children. Additionally, seasoned practitioners possess practical and instrumental knowledge acquired from years of experience in working with children, their teachers, and parents. This additional knowledge enables them to go beyond their initial preparation and to embrace a richer and more complete understanding of their work. Practitioners typically do not conduct research. Moreover, their interest in and respect for research often are meager, given their prevailing beliefs that much research is focused on peripheral problems and that researchers are too distant from classroom realities. In addition, practitioners typically trust their personal experience more than the outcome of studies that rarely state findings in an unequivocal fashion. Practitioners expect forthright and practical statements to guide their work. Practitioners more advanced knowledge often is not transmitted to others or captured through traditional research methods. Research methods that involve them centrally in designing and executing research, that draw upon their knowledge and wisdom, and that reflect the realities of school practice, their cultural, and social contexts are needed. Despite their differences, seasoned practitioners and scientists generally share a commitment to common goals (e.g., to accurately describe, understand, and intervene) yet differ in their knowledge base. Efforts to promote and improve services to children require the expertise and participation of both. Two Philosophies of Science Two strong and different philosophies generally guide educational research: experimentalism (Fiske & Shweder, 1986; Phillips, in press) and social constructionism (Kvale, 1992; Phillips, in press). Together they offer methods that could lead to a rich and valuable research base for developing ways to identify learning disabilities and promote effective professional preparation and practice. Traditional experimentalists embody the Enlightenment faith in technological and human progress through the accumulation of legitimate knowledge. This orientation has underpinnings that include belief and trust in experimentation, careful measurement of variables, and sophisticated statistical techniques. Experimentalist views currently range along a continuum, from those that reflect the traditional norms of a unified science to those that reflect a pluralistic perspective on science and the use of various scientific methods. Increased recognition as to the complexities of contemporary educational and psychological issues and societal demands for solutions to its vexing problems have lead to research efforts that increasingly are driven by problems and questions rather than a particular research method. A good example of these current developments is provided by Scarr (1985). Social constructionists generally focus on commonplace understandings or knowledge exhibited by the seasoned practitioner. Although some social constructionists accord special status to the scientist, most place higher value on the seasoned practitioner, given their belief that the practices within education and psychology, unlike their academic disciplines, are configured as a postmodern science (Semin & Gergen, 1990). The development of research methods that utilize social constructionist perspectives and capture the abilities of seasoned practitioners are needed if we are to describe and better utilize this important source of information. Good examples of direct implications of social constructionism for applications of psychology in schools are provided by Miller and Fredericks (1991) and Prawatt and Floden (1994). Thus, as noted below, the merging of experimental methods in their expanded format with those of social constructionists are both possible and needed as we develop methods to identify learning disabilities and to promote the development of those with this pervasive disability. The Research Base For Special Education As previously indicated, interest in meeting the needs of children with handicapping conditions began to emerge toward the beginning of this century. Initial research and practice focused mainly on those disorders that have a biological or medical basis, including mental retardation as well as visual and auditory impairments. Research and practice that focused on communication and language-related disabilities (e.g., language delays, stuttering) soon followed. Later research and practice focused on psychological disorders, including emotional disturbance, psychosis, as well as behavior and conduct disorders. Research that centers on educational implications of neurocognitive disorders, including learning disabilities, attention deficits, autism, and Tourettes syndrome is more recent. Studies conducted in countries that keep accurate records on these disorders suggest their incidence varies widely. For example, the number of persons who are blind or deaf (i.e., less than 1% of the population) or mentally retarded (i.e., about 1 to 3% of the population) often is very small. In contrast, the number of persons who have learning disabilities is large (i.e., almost 10% of the population). Persons with learning disabilities are thought to have a neuropsychological disorder that adversely impacts their ability to understand or use language. These conditions result in disorders of listening, thinking, talking, reading, writing, spelling, and arithmetic. A child's ability to perform in one or more of these seven areas is significantly below their intellectual ability. Learning disabilities typically appear first during the primary grades and generally continue throughout one's life. Children with learning disabilities are likely to constitute the largest number of students with educational handicaps, exceeding the combined number who are mentally retarded, blind, deaf, and emotionally disbursed. Inasmuch our world has approximately 1.5 billion children of school age, an estimated 150 million have a learning disability, a number exceeding the entire population of most countries. In contrast to the staggering numbers of children with learning disabilities, few countries have developed educational infrastructures to provide for their needs. In most countries, few teachers are prepared to work with them, few methods exist for their identification, and little is known about effective educational interventions. When unattended, learning disabilities are life-long and have a pervasive impact on many areas of development. Children with learning disabilities who do not receive needed assistance exhibit lower levels of academic and social development and exhibit higher levels of emotional problems. As adults, they exhibit more social and emotional difficulties. In addition, their vocational success generally is significantly below their intellectual abilities, thus reducing their contributions to the economic welfare of their family and country. Their diminished academic skills places limits on their ability to read and thus to be an informed participant in civic and government activities. In contrast, children with learning disabilities who receive needed assistance and instructional accommodations typically achieve at or higher than average levels, remain in school longer, exhibit normal social and emotional development, and prepare themselves vocationally to assume important positions in the public and private sectors of the economy. They become economic contributors, not burdens, to society Recommended Strategies A multi-year multi-nation effort is needed to address issues important to improved services for children with learning disabilities. Many strategies exist that, when implemented, would lead to this desired goal. One possible strategy is outlined briefly below. Stage 1. Convene leaders in education, psychology, and related areas within selected countries, including experienced scholars, practitioners, and policy planners, to discuss the status and importance of learning disabilities within their countries. Persons should represent national ministries of education, universities, and other public as well as private sector areas. Three purposes of stage one are to highlight the importance of learning disabilities, to understand the status of work in learning disabilities internationally, and to identify countries interested and able to enter into a multi-year effort to improve services. One or more countries in each of various targeted geographic regions (e.g., Central America, South America, North Africa, Sub-Sahara Africa, the Middle East, Eastern Europe, the Indian subcontinent, and Asia) should be identified. Thus, national and international committees should be formed. Stage 2. Various national committees are formed and convened, charged with responsibilities for initiating research leading to agreed-upon goals in reference to learning disabilities (e.g., to improve methods to define, identify, intervene, and prepare professionals). In addition, national committees continue their efforts leading to improved understanding of the status of learning disabilities and identification of professionals within their country with greatest experience in and potential for working with them. National committees are provided with the names of persons outside their countries who may serve as consultants. Researchers, practitioners, policy planners, and others develop specific plans for research and other scholarly activities, including the allocation of needed resources, that address the four previously stated goals. Stage 3. The various national committees form an international committee that meets to review national goals and plans, coordinate efforts when possible, receive needed assistance, and in other ways benefits from and monitors efforts of other national committees. Indicators marking progress are needed along with methods to evaluate them. Following this international meeting, national committees review their goals and plans, make modifications as needed, and implement their respective research efforts. Stage 4. National and international committees meet as needed to review and report findings in reference to their goals, modify their research efforts, and to implement and incorporate findings. National committees increasingly take responsibility for implementing programs within their countries leading to the realization of their goals and to provide leadership to assist neighboring countries in addressing similar issues regarding learning disabilities. ISPA's Contributions The International School Psychology Association (ISPA) believes international efforts to establish and promote services for children with learning disabilities are needed. In addition, ISPA believes additional research leading to effective interventions with children who exhibit learning disabilities is needed. Such efforts require the coordinated efforts of seasoned practitioners together with seasoned researchers who employ methodology consistent with the dynamic and complex conditions found in children and education. The use of qualitative and quantitative methods consistent with various philosophies of science (e.g., experimentalists and constructionist) will help create the basis for practice in many countries. ISPA can offer important resources. Its large and internationally- distributed membership have an abiding commitment to professional preparation as well as the promotion and delivery of services to children with learning disabilities. Its membership is found in more than 50 counties, including those that have well- developed methods for the preparation of specialists in learning disabilities as well as those with little or no similar infrastructure. Its members include seasoned practitioners, university instructors, and scholars. ISPA sponsors a quality scientific journal, School Psychology International, which features articles on these and related topics. ISPA holds annual meetings at which issues important to research and practice are featured. Its annual meetings often are held in developing countries so as to assist educators and psychologists to promote professional development in them. ISPA has a research committee committed to forging links between science and practice as well as between the knowledge bases in countries that differ culturally, politically, and developmentally. ISPA has a long record of supporting research that is cross-national and central to issues important to the Committee on the Rights of the Child (Hart & Zeidner, 1993; Hart, Zeidner, & Pavolvic, 1996; Hart, 1997). ISPA and its members welcomes opportunities to work with the Committee on the Rights of the Child and others to initiate and participate in this proposed research effort that lead to improved preparation of professionals to work with children with learning disorders together with methods for the identification, improvement, and prevention of learning disabilities. ISPA can assist at each of the four proposed stages. For example, ISPA would be pleased to assist in identifying and convening leaders to participate on national and international committees, to assist in formulating and achieving their goals as well as in efforts to promote the dissemination of results within countries unable to participate at this time. We also would welcome an opportunity to participate in pre-program planning meetings to further develop ideas identified in this proposal. References Hart, S. N. (1997). Cross-national research on children's rights. In E. Verhellen (Ed), Understanding childrens' rights: Collected papers presented at the first international interdisciplinary course on children's rights (pp. 67-82). Ghent, Belgium: Children's Rights Centre, University of Ghent. Hart, S. N., & Zeidner, M (1993). Children's rights perspectives of youth and educators: Early findings of a cross national project.International Journal of Children's Rights, 1, 165-188. Hart, S. N., & Zeidner, M., & Pavlovic, Z. (1996). 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Gutkins (eds.), The Handbook of School Psychology, 3rd Ed.. New York: Wiley.